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SQL Terminology and Definition

The database query language SQL (Structured Query Language) is used to create, write, delete and read tables. All operations on a relation that is mapped as a table in the database are executed with SQL commands. SQL is part of the database management system (DBMS) of relational systems and allows reading and manipulating the database.

1970 and the End of the Hierarchy

It took about 10 years for Edgar Codd to present his first relational model. The British mathematician, who studied at Oxford and researched in IBM’s development labs in San Jose, California, created what revolutionized data processing and made a triumphal march around the world. His theoretical model for a relational database, introduced in 1970, became the basis of database models and still is today.

Databases are used to manage data in computer systems. Although other concepts to manage data in a structured way are still used, they are of little importance. While Codd was still developing its relational model in the 1960s, the data was mainly stored in hierarchical databases. A big disadvantage of the hierarchical data management is that the structures can be changed or extended after creation no more or only very restrictedly. One of the best-known hierarchical database systems is the IMS/DB developed by IBM.

A first relational database system, based on Codds model, was developed in the 70s in the American Berkeley at the University of California: the open, relational database system Ingres. Today, Ingres is again an independent company that offers the world’s leading enterprise open source database with its product of the same name. Today, relational databases, which are managed with a relational database management system (RDBMS, Relational Database Management System), are used for data storage, especially of large databases.

Renamed – The Birth Of SQL

A special command structure is used to create, fill, change or delete tables in the relational database: SQL. THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL ENABLES The SQL database language allows you to define and manage data structures. This includes creating a table, manipulating data within this data structure, such as inserting and deleting records or inserting columns (columns or attributes) into the table, and creating keys.

The pronunciation of “SQL”, which stands for “Standard Query Language”, provides information not only about its purpose (query), but also about its origin. Officially, “SQL” is pronounced [?skju????l], but [?si?kw?l] is also used. The latter is the “original” name of the database language designed by Donald Chamberlin and Raymond Boyce with the participation of Edgar Codd: SEQUEL (Structured English Query Language).

SEQUEL became “SQL” with its standardization. Based on relational algebra, SQL has a simple structure and a close resemblance to colloquial English.

SQL And The Command Categories

SQL commands for processing structures in the database are divided into different categories according to their purpose: SQL includes categories for manipulating and defining data and managing the database.

The DML (Data Manipulation Language) category contains SQL commands for changing, inserting and deleting data within the table. The SQL language elements, which serve the pure query of the data, also belong in principle to the category DML, but are partly categorized in the literature as Data Query Language (DQL). DML contains all SQL commands for modification and query within a relation (table).

Some DML commands:

SELECT FROM relation - to read data (records, attributes) in the table relation
DELETE FROM relation - to delete data (records, attributes) in the table.
INSERT INTO relation - to insert data (records, attributes) into an existing table

Example DML command:

The students York and Bradley are to be created in the “Student” table. The primary key in the Student table is the student number, which must therefore also be created:

INSERT INTO student (matrn, name) VALUES (1001, 'York'), (1002, . 'Bradley')

The command creates two sentences. One for York, and one for Bradley. If additional data is to be inserted, such as a registered program that has already been created as a field in the table, the UPDATE command is used instead of the INSERT command.

The category DDL (Data Definition Language) contains the commands for defining the database schema. The SQL commands belonging to the DDL category are used to create, delete, or change the relations (tables) of the database. The creation of relations (tables) and views, the definition of keys or indexes within the table, and the deletion of tables and views are executed by SQL commands of category DDL:

Some DDL commands:

CREATE TABLE relation - creates the table "relation
DROP INDEX indexname - deletes an index
ALTER TABLE "relation" age definition - Changing the table according to the given "age definition

Example DDL command:

The Student table is created in the database.
CREATE TABLE Student (MatrN INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
LAST NAME VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL

The Student table contains columns for attributes, namely the student number, which is the primary key of the table, and the last name, which can be up to 30 characters long.

If the last name is not filled when a record is created, the statement is rejected because “NOT NULL” is specified. If the table is to be extended by another field, for example by the date of birth, the ALTER TABLE command is used.

The commands of the DCL category, the Data Control Language, include authorization management. The rights to the objects of the database are specified in SQL, but not the administration of user rights. Each database system therefore implements its own user administration.

Some DCL commands:

GRANT operation ON relation TO user - Grant own rights to the "relation" table to the "user(s)
REVOKE - to revoke rights

The “operation” can be a “SELECT” or an “UPDATE”, which allows the authorized user to read the table or change the contents of the table.

The Key To Success

Student Huber attends many lectures. While the students are filed with their matriculation number and date of birth in the table “Student”, the lectures are held in a separate table “Lecture”. The information which lectures the student Huber attends – is stored in a separate table (occupancy). The normalisation of the data structures in the database enables the maintenance of redundancy-free large databases.

Key relationships are created to logically link the data.

If a primary key is created for the table, unique values can only be entered in this field within the table. The primary key field of the “Student” table is the student number. This means that the data record for student Huber can only be created once in the table.

An additional record created with INSERT with the same student number is rejected by the DBMS. If a field that is the primary key of another table is included in the Student table, the field becomes the foreign key.

Example Of A Foreign Key:

The university database has its own table for all study programs offered (Master BWL, Bachelor BWL (abbreviation: BWL05), Economics, Mathematics, etc.) in which the unique identifier of the study program is the primary key. An additional field is inserted in the “Student” table in which the registered program (e.g. “BWL05”) of the respective student can be stored.

The field “degree program” is therefore a foreign key in the table “Student”. The field “degree program” is the primary key in the table “degree programsUni”. If a record is created in the table “Student” and the field “study program” is filled, a record with the contents of the field “study program” must exist in the table “Study programsUni”.

Not Without The Keys

Keys link the information within the database in order to store the data in logically independent containers – the tables. The goal of normalizing structures, which is achieved by encrypting the data, is also redundancy-free data storage in order to save access costs and physical storage space and eliminate sources of error.